Infanticide And Single Sex Education - 1284 Words

Coeducation and single-sex education are both extensively used around the world. By the 1980s, more and more schools which only severed male or female became coed. Even though, many parents still send their kids to only men school or only women school now days. Then why would some people choose a only men or only women school? Is it against the â€Å"gender equality†? In the early civilizations, education was informally and it was primarily households. As time passed, people began to get educated more formally and methodically. Ancient Greece and Asia focused mainly on the male pedagogy. Then in ancient Rome, the availability of education was extended to women, but they were separated from men. The early Christians and medieval Europeans continued this trend. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, coeducation grew much more widely accepted. The success and achievement of women at Oberlin College proved that coeducation would be accepted soon through this country. In the late 20th century, many institutions of higher learning which only reserved for one sex have become coeducational. Mixed-sex (or mixed-gender education), or coeducation in American English, is the comprehensive education for male and female students in the same environment. Coeducation and single-gender education are alternatives. Single-gender (or single-sex) education is the practice of conducting education where male and female students attend classes or schools or buildings separately. Before theShow MoreRelatedTaking a Look at Evolutionary Psychology1094 Words   |  5 Pagesin particular, determine the decision for a parent to be involved in their child’s life. Parental involvement increases their offspring’s attractiveness to the opposite sex, which subsequently increases their likelihood of reproducing. The involvement can monetary to improve social status, investments in their offspring’s education, and many other forms, but the common goal of involvement is the enhancement of their offspring’s attractiveness. The authors argue that because of this explanati on ofRead MoreFemale Foeticide1611 Words   |  7 Pagesfoeticide/ infanticide The term female foeticide means killing the female foetus in the mothers womb. How cruel? The practice has been followed in India for ages, a country that once described its women as godessess. For this reason, Indian women will soon get extinct. Surprised? The most active part is being played by the women themselves -- why? Just for the mere want of a boy, mothers dont feel bad in strangulating their daughters in their wombs. Can anyone be more cruel?   In India, sex ratio standsRead MoreEffects of One Child Policy in China Essay848 Words   |  4 PagesThe one-child policy in China forces families to only have one child by using harsh treatments such as undocumented children, forced abortions, and fines. The policy affects the elderly, economy, education levels, personality of children and the value of girls in China. Deng Xiaoping, a Chinese leader, created the one-child policy in 1979 in order to limit population growth of the Han Chinese. The policy takes away couples’ rights to have more than one child. Why does the government have to issueRead MoreGendercide: Elimination of One Sex Essay1715 Words   |  7 Pagesthe elimination of one sex through selective abortion, infanticide, neglecting and abuse. Most of the time the preference is for male. The United Nation specialists estimate that as many as two hundred million girls are missing in the world today. To give a broad figure, they explain that people practici ng gendercide in China and India eliminates more girls that than the number of girls born in America each year. All in all, they describe the phenomenon as the biggest single holocaust in human historyRead MoreEssay about Infanticide1949 Words   |  8 PagesDespite the clear prohibitions against child-murder by all major religions, female infanticide has been for centuries a prominent and socially acceptable event, notably in one of the most populous countries in this world, India. Even today, the extent of the problem is measured in alarming proportions all around the globe: â€Å"at least 60 million females in Asia are missing and feared dead, victims of nothing more than their sex. Worldwide, research suggests, the number of missing females may top 100 millionRead MoreEssay on Chinese Women and the Impact of the One-Child Policy2870 Words   |  12 Pagesand cars. One rarely thinks of a nation populated mostly by men and boys, with a noticeable yet surreal absence of women . While this is a bit of an exaggeration, it has been noted over the past several decades that there is an alarmingly imbalanced sex-ratio. The policy has clearly contributed to the nation’s unnatural gender imbalance, as couples use legal and illegal means to ensure that their only child is a son. There are 117 men to each 100 women in China (Goodkind, 2004). In the 1979, when theRead MoreGender Stratification : The Unequal Access Of Power, Property, And Prestige On The Basis Of A Person1487 Words   |  6 Pages3. Gender stratification is the unequal access to power, property, and prestige on the basis of a person’s sex. One of the big inequalities that women face in the United States in the pay gap between men and women. The pay gap is the earning ration between men and women. The pay gap is found by taking the men’s median income subtracting it from the women’s median income and then dividing it by the men’s median income. In 2013, the median income for men was $50,033 and $39,157 for women in the UnitedRead MoreAmericas Serious Problem of Child Abuse1080 Words   |  4 Pages A serious social problem in modern American society is child abuse. There have been widespread reports of infanticide, mutilation, abandonment, and other forms of physical and sexual violence against children (Moylan, 2010). When a child is abused, a non-accidental injury is inflicted, or permitted to be imparted, by the person accountable for the childs care, regardless of reason (Durfour, 2011). This may include any form of injury, including undernourishment, sexual molestation, emotional maltreatmentRead MoreOne Child Policy1658 Words   |  7 Pagesthe poverty rates have decreased. (Rosenberg) Although it has succeeded it relieving the economic stresses on the country, it has also brought to rise some significant problems. The policy has resulted in an increase in forced abortions, female infanticide, and un-reported female births. The reason for this is that in China, male children are very important to the people because they pass on the family name. If a family can only bear one child, and that child happens to be female, there is a highRead MoreEssay about Comunist China And Civil Rights Violations818 Words   |  4 Pagesa child they must first have a birth coupon issued by the government before giving birth to the child. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;quot;Birth Quotasquot; are determined in order to have surveillance of the people who have all ready had their single child allowed to them born. The women of China must deal with their menstrual cycle being monitored publicly to stop the possibility of having a second child. They also must face pelvic examinations if they are even suspected of being impregnated

William Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet, King Lear, And A...

The Bard of Avon, commonly known as William Shakespeare is one of the best known playwrights in the (Video). A few of his most famous plays include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, King Lear, and A Midsummer’s Night Dream (McArthur). Although he was popular during his time, Shakespeare’s influence continued to grow after his death and today he well known around the world. He added 2,000 words to the English dictionary and he is the 2nd most quoted after the Bible (Video). Shakespeare is one of the most influential historic figures the world has ever known and his works will always be well known. He may be one of the greatest playwrights the world has ever seen, but William Shakespeare has a relatively unknown background. The only concrete records of his past are church and court documents, which state baptisms and marriage. Although there is very little information, through speculation and extreme research historians have a relatively good grasp on his mysterious past. Shakespeare was born to Mary Arden and John Shakespeare on April 23, 1564 (McArthur). There are no birth records, but scholars have decided that April 23rd is his birthday (William). He and his family lived in Stratford-upon-Avon and he had two older sisters and three younger brothers. His father was a successful merchant and even became mayor, but his fortunes declined in the 1570’s (William). Although there are no records of his schooling, it is believed that William attended the King’s New School in Stratford.Show MoreRelated The Northern Lights2820 Words   |  12 PagesLights I hardly see how one can begin to consider Shakespeare without finding some way to account for his pervasive presence in the most unlikely contexts: here, there, and everywhere at once. He is a system of northern lights, an aurora borealis visible where most of us will never go. Libraries and playhouses (and cinemas) cannot contain him; he has become a spirit or spell of light, almost too vast to apprehend. Harold Bloom, Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human I don’t expect thisRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s English Literature Essay1667 Words   |  7 PagesWilliam Shakespeare has been best known for his poems, plays and masterful piece of writings in the English language. He has been referred to as the England s national poet and the Bard of Avon. He produced over thirty eight plays, hundred fifty four sonnets, five poems, and more verses. Shakespeare s plays consist of mainly tragedies, comedies and histories which are regarded as one of the best in those genres. The plays, the poems, and the sonnets have had a significance influence in EnglishRead MoreHow Shakespeare Impacted The British History?1851 Words   |  8 PagesWasemiller 19 February, 2015 How Shakespeare Impacted the British History? Shakespeare’s influence on the British culture in the 21st century remains unwavering. â€Å"Although William Shakespeare is viewed as the quintessential English writer, Shakespeare’s poems and plays have altered the course of European and World literature. The shadow that William Shakespeare has cast over the world has influenced artists, poets, philosophers and thinkers.’ (William Shakespeare- Biography, n.d.). Because of himRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Influence On The Course Of World History1440 Words   |  6 PagesWaldo Emerson, a famous essayist inspired by Shakespeare’s works. William Shakespeare was a renowned author, poet, actor, and playwright. He has contributed to many components of life today such as; founding modern English language, contributing to literature, contributing to modern theater, and contributing many of his works to modern English. William Shakespeare has greatly impacted the course of world history. William Shakespeare was believed to be born on April 23,1564, in his hometown of Stratford-upon-AvonRead MoreEssay on Biography of William Shakespeare2736 Words   |  11 PagesBiography of William Shakespeare William Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564. He was baptized on April 24, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. He was the third of eight children born to John Shakespeare and Mary Arden, three of whom died in childhood. John was a well-known merchant and Mary was the daughter of a Roman Catholic member of the gentry, or high social position. The house where Shakespeare spent his childhood stood adjacent to he wool shop in which his father plied a successfulRead More Shakespeares World Essay3144 Words   |  13 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Almost every nation on earth reads, studies and performs the works of William Shakespeare. No writer of any country, nor any age, has ever enjoyed such universal popularity. Neither has any writer been so praised. As William Hazlitt observed, quot;The most striking peculiarity of Shakespeares mind was its generic quality, its power of communication with all other minds.quot; It is perhaps this quality that has earned Shakespeare the supreme accolade, that of lending his name to an era. Other thanRead MoreAnalysis Of Shakespeare s The Tempest 2603 Words   |  11 Pages Malouin 11 Measuring a Life in a Drama When many people think of William Shakespeare, they think of plays like Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth or Hamlet. One of the most influential plays written by Shakespeare is not one listed above. The play that reflects the life and all of Shakespeare?s plays is The Tempest. This work was and still is influential in both America, Britain and around the world. Although William Shakespeare was an influential writer in American and British literature, The Tempest

Demand and Supply of Milk in Australia

Question: Discuss about the Demand and Supply of Milk in Australia. Answer: Introduction According to The Conversation. (2016), the production of milk in Australia has increased rapidly in the last few quarters. The total production of milk has been doubled in some of the places in the country. According to Agriculture (2016), this high supply has caused great inventory accumulation, resulting in fall in price. The reasons behind this phenomenal supply quantity are improved technologies, cow nutrition, focus on animal health and welfare, economies of scale and many more. The interested parties in this article will be the farmers, the milk producers, the milk traders, and those business owners who used milk as a factor of production. The stakeholders in this industry are the milk producers, suppliers, sellers, and the operators of related industries. The government being the one who will have to address the problems regarding the situation exogenously, is also considered as stakeholder. Economic theories The microeconomic theories can be used here are demand and supply and economies of scale. These economic concepts will help one to understand the reasons behind the splurge in the supply of milk and its consequences in the economic activities in Australia. The concept of demand and supply shows how the increased supply can be good as well as bad for some of the agents in the economy. The economies of scale shows which producers will survive in the industry and which producers will quit operating in the same. Analysis of the situation As stated by zkan, Hill and Cullen (2015), the splurge in supply was caused by improved technologies, cow nutrition, focus on animal health and welfare, economies of scale and many more. These reasons externally affected the supply by shifting the supply curve outwards as shown in the figure below: As the figure above shows, the supply of milk has shifted the supply curve rightwards. At price level P the output increased from A to B. According to Rios, McConnell and Brue (2013), this means, at the same price more milk is available now. But the demand for milk has not changed in the economy; this will result in a fall in the price of milk. The situation is depicted in the figure below: The figure above shows due to the unchanged demand, the rise in supply will reduce the price level of milk from P to P. If the demand for milk keeps on being at the same level, the price will not rise further from here. This will reduce the profitability in the industry for small producers. The business holders who use milk as an input will also reduce their prices to meet the competition in the market which will be created by the large supply of milk. According to Canto, Joines and Laffer (2014), this will be favourable for the consumers of milk and to those businesses which use milk as input in their production process. On the other hand, the suppliers and producers of milk will earn less due to the fall in price. This situation will push out some milk producers out of the market. As stated by Baumol and Blinder (2015), only those will remain who have an efficient production system and incurs less cost of production. One of the reasons behind this rise is economies of scale. Those who produce milk in a large quantity and thus have a less cost of production will benefit from this situation. It can be presented in a figure as given below: In the figure 3, the due to economies of scale, producing more quantity of milk reduces the average cost from producing more milk (A to B). The small producers in the market will leave due to inefficient production process. According to Hoag (2013), the rise in supply is not a sudden change but a sustaining one as the outside shocks which caused this are also sustaining in nature. Recommendation for the stakeholders The situation offers some positive scope for the Australian milk industry as given below: The country can increase the amount of exports, and start exporting to those countries where the country has not exported before. The country can also start producing new products which are related to milk and which will be well accepted by the consumers. This will bring in the scope of research and development in the industry. The country can donate the extra amount of milk for good cause and use it for food security bills in various countries. A better storage process can be introduced to increase the inventory in the country. The government has to think about policies which will absorb the milk producers who will leave the industry due to the rising supply. Conclusion From the above milk supply scenario in Australia it can be concluded that this rise is will sustain. This reduces the cost of production and increase the efficiency level in the industry. Multiple options come out from this scenario. As the figure 3 shows, the economies of scale can make Australia a major supplier of milk in the international market. It brings in the opportunity of creating new products which requires milk as a factor of production. Industries which will be affected by this price fall of milk are ice cream companies, yogurt producers and others. This will reduce their cost of production. The government of Australia can focus on trade of milk with this huge supply. The government also has to make policies which will help the employment process to absorb those who will be pushed out of the industry due to low level of price. References Agriculture, (2016). Innovation doubles milk production | Dairy mega evaluation | Dairy research | Dairy | Agriculture | Agriculture Victoria. [online] Agriculture.vic.gov.au. Available at: https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/dairy/dairy-science-and-research/dairy-mega-evaluation/innovation-doubles-milk-production [Accessed 6 Dec. 2016]. Australia, D., 2014. Australian Dairy Industry. Dairy Australia. Available online: www. dairyaustralia. com. au/Industry-information/About-the-industry. aspx. Baumol, W.J. and Blinder, A.S., 2015. Microeconomics: Principles and policy. Cengage Learning. Canto, V.A., Joines, D.H. and Laffer, A.B., 2014. Foundations of supply-side economics: Theory and evidence. Academic Press. Hoag, J.H., 2013. Review of Supply and Demand. In Intermediate Microeconomics (pp. 27-40). zkan, ?., Hill, J. and Cullen, B., 2015. Effect of climate variability on pasture-based dairy feeding systems in south-east Australia. Animal Production Science, 55(9), pp.1106-1116. Rios, M.C., McConnell, C.R. and Brue, S.L., 2013. Economics: Principles, problems, and policies. McGraw-Hill. The Conversation. (2016). Milk price cuts reflect the reality of sweeping changes in global dairy market. [online] Available at: https://theconversation.com/milk-price-cuts-reflect-the-reality-of-sweeping-changes-in-global-dairy-market-59251 [Accessed 6 Dec. 2016].

To All The Young Lifters, Essays - Bodybuilding Supplements

To all the young lifters, In today's society, children as young as eleven are taking creatine to enhance their performance in the gym. Kids think that creatine is their miracle cure for bulking up. In most cases, they hear about creatine from a friend who is taking it, so the next day, they go out to GNC and buy the biggest bottle they can find without knowing what it is, what it does, or what the side effects are. This is why I write to you. First of all, let me tell you what exactly creatine is. Creatine is a compound that is made in our bodies and can be taken as a dietary supplement. On average, a 160-pound person would have about 120 grams of natural creatine stored in their body. When you are doing an intense quick-burst activity such as weightlifting, your muscles must contract, needing a quick source of energy while the force of muscle contraction depending on the amount of stored ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). When the ATP is used, it turns into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate). Creatine increases the availability of ATP by reacting with the ADP in your body and turning it back into ATP. The more ATP in your body means the more fuel for your muscles. Creatine also helps to increase your muscle size by volumization. Volumization is the process of pulling fluid into the muscle cells and thus increasing their volume. Creatine also helps you to gain weight in this manner. These are the only major side effects. Certain side effects have been attributed to Creatine use. Fortunately, these effects are minor: upset stomach, muscle cramping, diarrhea, and dehydration. In addition, people tend to have more side effects when taking the powder as opposed to a more direct delivery method like serum or effervescent powder. Drinking plenty of water when taking creatine can minimize most of these effects. There is also some concern that creatine may place undue stress on the liver and kidneys. With normal dosage, creatine in theory should pose no long-term health risks. In fact, some studies have shown that creatine can help reduce your chances of heart disease and adult on-set diabetes. On November 12, 1999, at the 19th Annual Southwest American College of Sports Medicine Meeting, two long-term creatine studies were presented from the Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab at the University of Memphis. Both studies showed that nine months of creatine supplementation in athletes had no negative effects on m arkers of renal function or muscle and liver enzymes in comparison to athletes not taking creatine. Creatine has never been proven to interfere with growth. It is true that long term studies with teenagers have not been done. In addition, for ethical reasons they probably never will be. No one wants to pump kids like you full of creatine for a few years just to see if harm is done. When your body is in its growth phase it is very important not to do anything that could interfere with growth. It is for this reason that it makes sense to spend some time trying to determine if creatine could in any way interfere with growth. Creatine has not been studied long enough to guarantee it does not interfere with anything. My feeling is that if you want to be completely safe, don't take creatine until you are older than 18. It is not that I have read anything that tells me that creatine is dangerous to people your age, but if you want to be on the safe side, don't use it just in case new research comes out later. One thing I want to mention is that it is unfair to hold creatine to a higher standard than any other food or supplement. Many parents will let their children drink can after can of pop without researching the possible dangers of caffeine. Then when it comes to creatine, they want a guarantee that it is completely safe. A very powerful argument could be made on the negative effects of sugar for teenagers. However, there is little public outcry to ban sugar sales to minors. My point is that it is great to have a concerned parent, but creatine may not be the To All The Young Lifters, Essays - Bodybuilding Supplements To all the young lifters, In today's society, children as young as eleven are taking creatine to enhance their performance in the gym. Kids think that creatine is their miracle cure for bulking up. In most cases, they hear about creatine from a friend who is taking it, so the next day, they go out to GNC and buy the biggest bottle they can find without knowing what it is, what it does, or what the side effects are. This is why I write to you. First of all, let me tell you what exactly creatine is. Creatine is a compound that is made in our bodies and can be taken as a dietary supplement. On average, a 160-pound person would have about 120 grams of natural creatine stored in their body. When you are doing an intense quick-burst activity such as weightlifting, your muscles must contract, needing a quick source of energy while the force of muscle contraction depending on the amount of stored ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). When the ATP is used, it turns into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate). Creatine increases the availability of ATP by reacting with the ADP in your body and turning it back into ATP. The more ATP in your body means the more fuel for your muscles. Creatine also helps to increase your muscle size by volumization. Volumization is the process of pulling fluid into the muscle cells and thus increasing their volume. Creatine also helps you to gain weight in this manner. These are the only major side effects. Certain side effects have been attributed to Creatine use. Fortunately, these effects are minor: upset stomach, muscle cramping, diarrhea, and dehydration. In addition, people tend to have more side effects when taking the powder as opposed to a more direct delivery method like serum or effervescent powder. Drinking plenty of water when taking creatine can minimize most of these effects. There is also some concern that creatine may place undue stress on the liver and kidneys. With normal dosage, creatine in theory should pose no long-term health risks. In fact, some studies have shown that creatine can help reduce your chances of heart disease and adult on-set diabetes. On November 12, 1999, at the 19th Annual Southwest American College of Sports Medicine Meeting, two long-term creatine studies were presented from the Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab at the University of Memphis. Both studies showed that nine months of creatine supplementation in athletes had no negative effects on m arkers of renal function or muscle and liver enzymes in comparison to athletes not taking creatine. Creatine has never been proven to interfere with growth. It is true that long term studies with teenagers have not been done. In addition, for ethical reasons they probably never will be. No one wants to pump kids like you full of creatine for a few years just to see if harm is done. When your body is in its growth phase it is very important not to do anything that could interfere with growth. It is for this reason that it makes sense to spend some time trying to determine if creatine could in any way interfere with growth. Creatine has not been studied long enough to guarantee it does not interfere with anything. My feeling is that if you want to be completely safe, don't take creatine until you are older than 18. It is not that I have read anything that tells me that creatine is dangerous to people your age, but if you want to be on the safe side, don't use it just in case new research comes out later. One thing I want to mention is that it is unfair to hold creatine to a higher standard than any other food or supplement. Many parents will let their children drink can after can of pop without researching the possible dangers of caffeine. Then when it comes to creatine, they want a guarantee that it is completely safe. A very powerful argument could be made on the negative effects of sugar for teenagers. However, there is little public outcry to ban sugar sales to minors. My point is that it is great to have a concerned parent, but creatine may not be the

Women in Technology Fields

Introduction As society evolves to become more dependent on science and technology for growth and development, the occupational segregation of women in the sciences relative to men, not only in terms of absolute numbers but also in terms of visibility in the upper echelons of the professions, represents a misuse of scarce human capital and continues to alarm academics, policy makers and mainstream commentators (Hatchell Aveling, 2008).Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Women in Technology Fields specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More That’s good writing. As observed by a number of scholars (e.g., Huffman et al, 2010; Benson Yukongdi, 2005), it is indeed true that the gendered segregation of jobs and occupations in these critical sectors of the economy is a persistent characteristic in many labour markets globally, and is the proximate foundation of many forms of gender inequality. An extensive and well es tablished literature documents the destructive outcomes of gendered occupational segregation in science and technology fields (Deem, 2007), which include lower wages, expansive income disparities, fewer promotions, and less significant wage increases (Schweitzer et al, 2011). The worrying trend being replicated in nearly all economies worldwide is that although more women are being absorbed in the fields of science and technology than ever before, they persist to be considerably outnumbered by their male counterparts (Jones, 2010; Bhatia Amati, 2010). It is the purpose of the present study to perform a critical analysis of why women continue to be underrepresented in the telecommunication industry in Europe and Middle East. Very good start! Towards the realization of this broad objective, this section sets out to review and analyze extant literature on women’s occupational segregation in technology fields, with specific focus on the telecommunication sector in Europe and Mid dle East. The section will, among other things, analyze existing literature on women in engineering and technology fields, the dynamics of occupational segregation of women in these sectors, barriers to gendered occupation equality, and issues that need to be addressed to encourage and retain women in technology fields.Advertising Looking for dissertation on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is imperative to note that due to paucity of literature on women occupational segregation in the telecommunication sector, the analysis of critical literature will assume a broader scope to encompass segregation of women in technology fields based on the rationale that the telecommunication sector is technology-oriented. Women in Technology Fields Hersh (2000) cited in Kusk et al (2007) observed that although there have been marked increases in the number of women taking up technology-oriented occupations over the last two decades, women still remain a minority in these fields in nearly all countries across the world. Indeed, according to Gillard et al (2008), as many Western technology-oriented organizations endeavour â€Å"†¦to recognize and validate difference through diversity policies, they in fact leave the power mechanisms of conformity unchallenged and intact, individualize the inequities, bypass tensions of coexistence, and actually reinforce and homogenize difference† (p. 266). In particular, these authors note that although the telecommunication and information communication technology (ICT) workforce forms fairly new professional sectors, women persistently occupy a minority of positions and gender segregation that has been well documented in many other occupations is being simulated in the telecommunication/ICT industries. Available literature demonstrate that women in telecommunication/ICT industries tend to be concentrated in particular occupational spheres, which are norma lly the lower skilled information technology (IT) jobs related to data entry, implying that women in these critical sectors of the economy comprise a marginal percentage of managerial, design, and software development personnel (Gillard et al, 2008). Yet, according to Bystydzienski (2004), as increasing numbers of women get absorbed into the telecommunication/ICT professions, not only are they faced with a slump in salaries, status, and working conditions but they also have to contend with the domain of masculinity that is well entrenched in these sectors. In other words, men still dictate access to, and advancement in, paid employment in telecommunication/ICT fields (Benson Yukongdi, 2005; Hafkin Huyer, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Women in Technology Fields specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Trends in various countries and regions Trends in the United States According to a report released by t he U.S. Department of Labour (2005) cited in Oswald (2008), women currently make up approximately 50% of the total workforce, but they continue to be segregated in many occupations, particularly in engineering and technology-oriented occupations. This gendered occupational segregation, it seems, has its roots in the educational achievements of women. A report completed in 2007 by the National Science Foundation also cited in Oswald (2008) revealed that â€Å"†¦women earned only 29% of the bachelor’s degrees in math and computer science, 21% of the degrees in engineering, and 42% of the bachelor’s degrees in physical science† (p. 196). These disciplines form the foundation for a career trajectory in the telecommunication field. Available literature demonstrates that leading women engineers and ICT experts in the United Sates are regularly burdened with concerns about not being taken seriously, perceived non-performance, exclusionary social dynamics, reliance on hostile workmates or seniors, and excessive pressure to imitate the male paradigm of doing science (Etzkowitz et al, 2010). Such experiences, according to these authors, not only obstruct interpersonal relationships but frustrate the women’s capacity to reach their full potential, no matter how able or talented they are. A survey conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Labour cited in Coder et al (2009) indicates that while women made up an estimated 43% of the information technology (IT) workforce in 1983, the percentage dropped to a paltry 26 % in 2008 in spite of the fact that the total IT workforce had more than doubled for the indicated period. Trends in United Kingdom Sappleton Takrui-Rick (2008) posit that â€Å"†¦despite 30 years of equality legislation, women in science, engineering and technology in the U.K. remain severely underrepresented† (p. 284). Indeed, the U.K. has one of the highest levels of gendered occupation segregation in the European Union, pa rticularly in science, engineering and technology domains. Available statistics contained in a report by the Engineering Council UK (2004) cited in Sappleton Takrui-Rick (2008) â€Å"†¦suggest that only 8% of those employed in engineering work and 15% of those employed in information, communication, and technology (ICT) work in the U.K. are female† (p. 285).Advertising Looking for dissertation on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Current trends, however, demonstrate that organizations are increasingly realizing the intrinsic benefit of encouraging and retaining women in these fields though tangible results are yet to be achieved (Bhatia Amati, 2010). The limited success of intervention strategies aimed at achieving equal gender representation in these fields, according to Sappleton Takrui-Rick (2008), can be partially accredited to the fact that, after â€Å"getting in,† certain influences obstruct women in the U.K. from â€Å"staying on† and â€Å"getting on† in the sectors in parity with their male counterparts. In a recently concluded case study on network engineer training programs in Britain running the Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) module, it was demonstrated that career openings commensurate with their skills were substantially restricted for women employees in general, but particularly so for women single parents (Gillard et al, 2008). A study conductad by Franzway(2 009), found that a large number of men are attracted to technical training programmes and courses. A study conducted by Hafkin Taggart (2001) cited in Gillard et al (2007) found that employers in the UK were reluctant to recruit women CCNA programmers and instructors ostensibly because women are poorly qualified and lack fundamental work experience. Indeed, according to Gillard et al (2008), the â€Å"†¦employers frequently maintained that not only were the supposed physical and computational demands of the job too exacting but that it was too risky to permit inexperienced personnel to tinker with the vital network infrastructure† (p. 272). Preferring to recruit men, this unconcealed stereotyped discrimination in expertise recognition has also been experienced by female telecommunication engineers and network administrators in other parts of the world, with job advertisements for telecommunication/ICT professionals frequently specifying male job applicants (Gillard et a l, 2008; Hafkin Huyer, 2007). Extant literature (e.g., Bystydzienski, 2004; Benson Yukongdi, 2005; Bhatia Amati, 2010) demonstrate that once in formal employment in these technology-oriented sectors, however, women perform as well as, if not better than, their male counterparts. Trends in Middle East Although gendered occupation segregation is far more entrenched in the Middle East and other Arab-dominated regions than in other areas, this is mainly because, the Islamic religion is the main religion in the Middle East region. The Islamic religion, believes that women should concentrate more on their household responsibilities than technical careers. Bhatia Amati (2010) note that it becomes hard to dissect the problem due to paucity of statistical data, particularly sex-segregated data on gender inequality in the Middle East. However, various rationales as to why the problem is so deeply entrenched in the Middle East have surfaced. Benson Yukongdi (2005) posit that owing to reli gious and socio-cultural barriers, many countries in the Middle East abide by a social convention in which women are widely expected to play a supporting role relative to men. According to Hafkin Huyer (2007) cultural prohibitions in many countries in the Middle East restrict women from undertaking any gainful employment outside the home. According to Benson Yukongdi (2005), men in the Middle East are traditionally placed in core occupations and departments, and this becomes the basis for gender divergences in recruitment, promotion, training, rewards and decision-making authority. Dynamics of Occupational Segregation in Technology Fields Available literature demonstrates that in spite of their talent, ability, and opportunity, women continue to be underrepresented in engineering and technology-oriented sectors of the economy (Schweitzer et al, 2011; Bhatia Amati, 2010). This notwithstanding, it is indeed true that unlike other historically male-dominated jobs that have registere d considerable gains in attaining gendered equality, many engineering and technology-oriented fields have remained noticeably unbalanced in terms of gender (Deem, 2007). Still, other studies (e.g., Kusk et al, 2007; Coder et al, 2009; Kotsilieri Marshall, 2004) have demonstrated that underrepresentation of women in engineering and technology-oriented sectors continue to widen as women engineers and technicians find themselves swimming against the tide of prejudice intrinsically reinforced by the social, cultural, psychological and economic realities of life. A study by Hatchel Aveling (2008) found that women telecommunication engineers are eight times more likely to be working part-time, while women working in ICT are six times more likely to be working part-time. This section aims to explore critical literature on the dynamics of occupational segregation in technology-oriented fields, with particular focus on telecommunication and ICT sectors. Consequently, literature on the pipe line theory, the social constructionist perspectives, meritocracy and its implications, and organizational policies and culture, will be evaluated with a view to understand why the problem of gendered occupational segregation in technology-oriented fields continue to persist despite the spirited attempts by governments and organizations across the world to curtail the inequality progression. The unsuccessful Pipeline Theory According to Schweitzer et al (2011), â€Å"†¦the pipeline theory suggests that increasing the number of women in male dominated fields should lead to more equality in the labour market†¦This presumes that women and men in the pipeline expect comparable career outcomes† (p. 422). Given institutional, organizational and countrywide efforts to get girls into engineering and technology-oriented disciplines in institutions of higher learning, it was expected that, with a large proportion of women entering the engineering and technology fields, they w ould obviously filter into the traditionally male-dominated upper levels of these critical sectors in large numbers (Hatchel Aveling, 2008; Franzway et al, 2009). Indeed, according to these authors, the metaphor of the â€Å"pipeline effect† was based on the assertion that gender imbalances noted in engineering and technology-oriented occupations would be successfully dealt with once women overcame their reluctance to enter these sectors and acquire the requisite qualifications. However, as has been demonstrated in a number of research articles concerned with assessing the reasons behind gender-based underrepresentation in the labour market, the movement of more women into the pipeline failed to correspond with the attainment of enviable trends for women careers, particularly when it comes to engineering and technology-oriented sectors of the economy (Schweitzer et al, 2011; Coder et al, 2009). Hatchel Aveling (2008) are of the opinion that the pipeline theory promised â₠¬Å"†¦false hope as the pipeline turned out to be very leaky indeed† (p. 357). This view is reinforced by a host of other scholars (e.g. Coder et al, 2009; Bhatia Amati, 2010), who suggest that women are yet to achieve comparable outcomes relative to men in these sectors even after sustained efforts from various quarters, including organizations and governments, to â€Å"feed† the women into the pipeline. Various scholars have attempted to dissect why the â€Å"pipeline effect† failed to deliver the intended outcomes, particularly in the attainment of comparable career outcomes for women in engineering and technology-oriented occupations. Hatchel Aveling (2008) maintain that the pipeline theory has several limitations that make it impossible for women to achieve comparable career outcomes. According to these authors, the theory â€Å"†¦posits a straightforward linear career progression that is quite restrictive and does not easily accommodate the more complex life-patterns of females† (p. 358). Women employees have unique needs and demands, which in most occasions act as barriers to successful gendered occupation equality not only in the science fields but also in other areas (Gillard et al, 2008). These barriers will be discussed at length in the succeeding sections of this review. Other scholars have observed that the pipeline theory fails to take into consideration the multiple layers of culture in its attempt to guarantee comparable career outcomes for women relative to men. To understand the dynamics of occupational segregation and institute a framework which will enable women to achieve comparable career outcomes, therefore, â€Å"†¦gender must always be seen in terms of its cultural context, in which the intersection of gender and culture is closely linked to the issue of power† (Hatchel Aveling, 2008 p. 358). Lastly, the pipeline theory fails to account for why women are leaving science, engineering an d technology-oriented organizations in large numbers relative to their male counterparts (Screuders et al, 2009), even after successful efforts made by various agencies to encourage more girls into science and technology at the school and even the undergraduate level (Hatchel Aveling, 2008). The Social Constructionist Viewpoints Various scholars have attempted to explain the occupation segregation of women in engineering and technology-oriented occupations using the social constructionist perspectives. Kotsilieri Marshall (2004) are of the opinion that the experiences and characteristics accredited to women, portrayed in academia and industry as contributing to their current occupational segregation in engineering and technology-oriented fields, are not timeless and universal but are socially, historically, psychologically, and politically located. To deduce that all women judge, think, or relate in distinctive and universal ways when making career choices, particularly in fields traditionally considered as male-dominated, inarguably denies the contextualise that frames behaviour (Benson Yukongdi, 2005). To better understand the social constructionist perspectives in general and, by extension, the contextuality that denies behaviour, it is important to explain the difference between sex and gender. Gillard et al (2008) explain that â€Å"†¦while sex reflects biological difference, gender – although often based on biological sex – is a social construction† (p. 264). This therefore implies that individuals are born and straight away categorized as female or male, but with time obtain a gendered identity, that is, what it implies to be feminine or masculine. These authors further posit that â€Å"†¦both gendered concepts are relational, that is, they are construed in relation to each other by defining what the female is not in relation to the Western masculine norm; this varies from one environment to another and shifts over tim e† (p. 264). According to Bhatia Amati (2010), one of the most elaborated features of the social constructionist perspective is the recognition that women and men are located divergently in society and that not all women or all men share similar experiences or challenges. In pursuing the social constructionist line of thought, Gillard et al (2008) observe that the gendering of work, technology and indeed many other facets of occupational life and orientation â€Å"†¦constitute individuals as different types of value-added labourers can be made visible by documenting cultural values, beliefs, and activities, which contribute toward identity formulations, roles and responsibilities, and personal aspirations and opportunities† (p. 265). Consequently, these authors underline a value preposition suggesting that the micro dimensions of our everyday existence, reinforced by community, organizational and institutional hegemonic philosophies and processes that maintains th e normalized status quo, provides the basis for gendered occupational segregation not only in technology-oriented fields but also in other areas. Meritocracy its Implications The concept of meritocracy came into the limelight in the late 1950s to denote a social system that prescribes to merit, talent and capabilities as the foundation for recruiting employees into positions and dispensing rewards (Castilla Bernard, 2010). To date, opinion still remains divided on whether meritocracy promotes gendered occupation equality or occupational segregation. As observed by these authors, â€Å"†¦advocates of meritocracy stress that in true meritocratic systems everyone has an equal chance to advance and obtain rewards based on their individual merits and efforts, regardless of their gender, race, class, or other non-merit factors† (p. 543). This implies that men and women in engineering and technology-oriented occupations have equal opportunities for advancement despite the exi stence of gendered imbalances and barriers that may act to hinder one group, particularly women, to advance in their careers. Indeed, meritocracy has been culturally accepted as a reasonable and justifiable distributive standard in many developed capitalist countries and organizations (Castilla Bernard, 2010). In her research, Deem (2007) noted that meritocracy is a universal value that is absolutely compatible with gendered occupation equality, ensuring that recruitment and promotion in the workplace is through open competition rather than through concession or networks of associates. Critics of meritocracy, however, argue that the concept has failed to deliver equal gender representation in a number of occupations, particularly in the sciences. In their research, Castilla Bernard (2010) came up with what they called the ‘paradox of meritocracy’ to refer to a situation where organizations that prescribe to meritocratic principles were found to demonstrate greater bia s in favour of men over equally competitive and performing women. Many modern technology organizations, though based on meritocracy in recruitment and promotions, are heavily bureaucratized. Gillard et al (2008) note that â€Å"†¦the bureaucratization of gender guidelines all too often tends to reinforce institutional influence and silences those whose voices rarely get aired in the development forums where decisions are made† (p. 266). Recent empirical studies as quoted in Castilla Bernard (2010) found that occupational segregation continues even with the adoption of merit-based recruitment and reward systems, affirmative action and other diversity-oriented policies and strategies. Indeed, according to these researchers, some organizational practices and procedures instituted to entrench the meritocratic paradigm in the organization have been found to negatively affect employees’ opportunities and professions, particularly those practices developed to diminish i nequalities for women and ethnic minorities. This assertion leads Bhatia Amati (2010) to conclude that some organizational policies and practices supposedly adopted to enhance meritocracy are only factored in for symbolic reasons and do not in any way achieve their stated objectives. For example, research has revealed that some organizational recruitment programs and reward practices intended to reflect the meritocratic paradigm act to increase gender and racial inequalities by virtue of the fact that they introduce bias into employee recruitment and compensation decisions (Baron Cobb-Clark, 2010). Deem (2007) noted at least two challenges with the conception of meritocracy in relation to gendered occupation inequality. First, the researcher argued that meritocracy hindered women’s recruitment and progress in key sectors of the economy due to the â€Å"†¦individualistic focus of meritocratic judgments that reward the successful and stigmatize the unsuccessful† ( p. 617). Meritocracy, it was argued, has the supremacy to transfer the responsibility for unequal recruitment and promotional results back onto the individual and consequently to stigmatize the unsuccessful applicants as unskilled or incapable. A second challenge with meritocracy, according to this particular researcher, is the insinuation that it applies culturally and value-neutral standards to the recruitment and promotion of workers. However, it is unfeasible to develop totally neutral standards or evaluations by virtue of the fact that cultural and social ideals do enter into the recruitment and promotion processes. Organizational Policies Culture Organizational policies and cultures, of different societies, act as facilitators of gender segregation. A number of studies (e.g., Gillard et al, 2008; Bhatia Amati, 2010) have attempted to offer a gender construction in which critical reflection is applied to how occupational segregation of women in science and technology fields, of which the telecommunication sector is an integral component, is woven in organizational, national and international policies, business practices and concerns, and public and private employment configurations. Many organizational policies and strategies orient themselves to the unfounded paradigm that women posses less levels of human capital relative to men (Benson Yukongdi, 2005). Some organizational perceptions practiced in many countries, particularly in the Middle East, makes it permissible for occupations to be allocated along gender lines, implying that women are left with little prospect to develop the necessary work experience that is fundamentally needed in many technology-oriented organizations. On the other hand, there was something in the news last week about men being not allowed to serve customers in women’s clothing shops. For example, men in the Middle East are traditionally placed in core occupations and departments, and this becomes the basis for gender divergences in recruitment, promotion, training, rewards and decision-making authority. In a similar fashion a broad range of organizational policies and practices serve to prevent women from entering technology-oriented occupations. Benson Yukongdi (2005) point out the challenge of statistical discrimination, where organizations not only in telecommunication/ICT sectors but also in other fields make decisions on recruitment, promotion and training â€Å"†¦based on generalized data rather than on the actual experiences of individuals† (p. 287). For instance, absenteeism data for all women in the firm would be utilized to evaluate the commitment of particular women applying for promotion while not taking into consideration other dynamics that are unique to women, such as maternity leave and family responsibilities. Such an orientation only serves to enhance gendered occupational segregation. In line with this, it is indeed true that many organizations either do not have a statistical database on women occupational segregation or fail to collect such data in a consistent and regular manner, making it almost impossible to address the challenge (Franzway et al, 2009). As underscored by Hafkin Huyer (2007), the paucity of statistical data on gendered occupational segregation in the telecommunication/ICT sectors makes it difficult, if not unfeasible, to develop a case for the inclusion of gender issues in telecommunication/ICT policies, plans, and strategies to employers and policymakers. Extant literature demonstrate that although there is a substantial increase in the number of women joining engineering and technology-oriented firms (Morganson et al, 2010), the gains are being watered down by misplaced organizational policies and governance issues, which ensure that women do not stay longer in these critical sectors of the economy (Huffman et al, 2010). As noted by Hatchel Aveling (2008), â€Å"†¦the issue is no longer one of attracting women into the sciences but rather one of keeping them there† (p. 359). Morganson et al (2010) observes that when women complete undergraduate training in technical disciplines, they persist to be underrepresented in these fields and are more likely to leave the labour force than are men. A number of researchers (e.g., Bhatia Amati, 2010; Bystydzienski, 2004; Franzway et al, 2009) have blamed the gendered dimensions of organizational culture for the high turnover of women in engineering and technology-oriented organizations, while others (e.g., Gillard et al, 2008; Hafkin Huyer, 2007) argue that structural, cultural, interactional, and identity arrangements, even though irreversibly associated, are important classifications in understanding why women’s occupational segregation in engineering and technology-oriented fields can be fundamentally attributed to the gender subtext of organizations. Barriers to Gendered Occupation Equality in Technology Fields Many studies have be en conducted over time to understand the reasons behind the current gendered occupational segregation of women in engineering and technology fields. Kusk et al (2007) is of the opinion that women’s success in engineering and technology-related fields is often contingent upon them adopting an overtly male career pattern, implying that male domination in these sectors is barrier to entry of more women. This view is consistent with Morganson et al (2010) observation that the technology environment is often typified as a chilly environment, â€Å"†¦which tends to be male-dominated, highly impersonal and individualistic† (p. 169). According to these authors, the lack of support in the traditional engineering and technology working environments may be particularly destructive to women given that a number of researchers and theorists have continuously emphasized the fundamental importance of personalized relationships and interpersonal associations to women’s psyc hological development and well-being. The education system continues to be blamed for the swelling underrepresentation of women in technology-oriented fields, such as the telecommunication sector. According to Bhatia Amati (2010), girls in institutions of higher learning observe that there are few women in science and technology fields and, consequently, make a conclusion that a career trajectory in these fields is more suitable for men than for women. Indeed. Faced with the knowledge of both the bleak and subtle obstacles that face women in the male-dominated science and technology fields, girls in colleges and universities opt out of the disciplines and orient themselves for other fields that guarantee better opportunities of educational and career success. This view has been reinforced by Benson Yukongdi (2005), who observe that â€Å"†¦education, and particularly higher levels of education, has been denied to many women as families and society place more emphasis on wome n’s role as mother and homemaker† (p. 287). As a direct consequence, few women ever make it to technology-oriented occupations because these fields traditionally require higher levels of education. Historically, the image of technology fields have been perceived under the lens of complexity, time-intensive, challenging tasks, and involving machinery, and, consequently, both women and men continue to perceive engineering and technology fields as masculine both in nature and association (Kusk et al, 2007). Gillard et al (2008) describe how employees in telecommunication/ICT fields, interacting across time and space, are constantly obliged to work long hours to accommodate divergent time zones and regularly operate in crisis mode with strict project deadlines while having to continually update the job skills in response to rapid shifts in technology. In addition to these occupational demands, â€Å"†¦the mobile nature of these types of occupations often works to wome n’s disadvantage as they experience difficulties when faced with long hours, expectations of overseas travel, and participation in informal social networks† (Gillard et al, 2008 p. 271). Benson Yukongdi (2005) observe that even in instances where women have similar levels of education to their male colleagues, childbirth and family responsibilities implies that, for many women, gaining the pertinent and equivalent work expertise needed in technology-oriented occupations is impossible. Academics and industry view the gender pay gap as a strong contributing factor toward continued gender segregation of labour in science, engineering and technology sectors. As observed by Blau Khan (2007), women telecommunication engineers continue to earn substantially less than men even when they are tasked with the same responsibilities. Many research articles (e.g., Blau Khan, 2007; Franzway et al, 2009) have digested a positive correlation between gendered pay gap on the one hand a nd prejudice and discrimination on the other. Baron Cobb-Clark (2010) suggest that the notion of prejudice and its negative ramifications are readily transferrable to women versus men, while Etzkowitz et al (2010) conceptualized discriminatory preferences of women in engineering and technology fields as arising from an active desire by engineering-oriented organizations to maintain social distance from women due to their perceived family responsibilities, which negatively affect their performance and productivity. To reinforce this view of normalized discrimination in the workplace, Hatchel Aveling (2008) observe that many technology-oriented organizations are more likely to hire males than women, not mentioning that males working for these organizations are more likely than females to be given credit for ideas, concepts or work completed. According to Etzkowitz et al (2010), women are expected to work twice as hard to prove that they are capable of becoming productive telecommuni cation engineers, systems analysts and ICT experts. There is compelling evidence that women continue to be discriminated against in science and technology-oriented occupations due to their low levels of experience relative to men (Franzway et al, 2009). As rightly pointed out by Blau Khan (2007), â€Å"†¦the qualification that has proven to be quite important is work experience because traditionally women moved in and out of the labour market based on family considerations† (p. 9). Experience and the accumulation of skills that are fundamental in science and technology fields go hand in hand. Consequently, available studies (e.g., Blau Khan, 2007; Franzway et al, 2009; Deem, 2007) have demonstrated that women may particularly avoid career trajectories obliging large investments in skills that are distinctive to a particular endeavour mainly because of the fact that the returns to such investments are reaped only as long as the employee remains with that employer. Indee d, many employers may exhibit reinforced reluctance to hire women for such occupations because the organization bears some of the costs of such sector-specific training, not mentioning that their fear is further compounded by the fact that they may not get a full return on that investment due to higher turnover of women telecommunication engineers (Jones, 2010; Bhatia Amati, 2010). The lack of benefits perceived to be unique to women has worked to the disadvantage of women in technology-oriented fields. Indeed, Gillard et al (2008) posit that the majority of newly created technology and telecommunication occupations in developed as well as developing countries are predominantly found in the private sector, but the absence â€Å"†¦of benefits available means that women are unlikely to pursue these types of employment, instead having to opt for public sector work that is more likely to offer childcare provision, flexible hours, and maternity leave† (p. 272). As some gover nments formulate policies aimed at passing legislation for these benefits, which are perceived to encourage more women into technology and telecommunication occupations, the full responsibility for availing them often falls into the hands of private sector employers who are then inclined to discriminate against offering job positions to women in a bid to circumvent the financial cost of affording these services and benefits (Gillard et al, 2008; Baron Cobb-Clark, 2010; Franzway et al, 2009; Deem, 2007). Benson Yukongdi (2005) note that some organizations avail little in the way of family friendly policies or child care that would assist women professionals to deal with the role conflict arising from engagement with family related responsibilities as they perform organizational roles. According to Kusk et al (2007), â€Å"†¦explicit admittance of a belief in gender differences serve as a mechanism to sustain the status quo of the gender order by affirming current inequalities and prejudices as a natural difference† (p. 111). Women traditionally are perceived to be more oriented toward undertaking family responsibilities than engaging in paid labour. Where women engage in paid work, they nevertheless undertake major domestic responsibilities in addition to their organizational responsibilities. In many instances, as noted by Benson Yukongdi (2005), the gender-based division of family responsibilities and domestic work leaves women with few choices but to downsize their professional ambitions to fit with their family demands. In addition, some growth mind-sets have been found to influence girls into believing that they are not as good as boys in science and technology-oriented fields, and that men are more appropriate to venture into scientific careers than are women (Jones, 2010). Consequently, when girls and women take a stand that they only have a fixed amount of knowledge that is undesirable in scientific careers, they are more likely to believ e in the stereotype, lose confidence and self-belief, and eventually disengage from science, engineering and technology-oriented disciplines. This implies that women career trajectories in the mentioned disciplines become misplaced early in life due to the stereotype (Gillard et al, 2008; Schreuders et al, 2009). Inflexible and unfavourable organizational environment, reinforced by strategies and policies that are unfavourable to the progression of women in engineering and technology fields, have been blamed by leading scholars and practitioners as one of the foremost barriers to gendered occupational equality in these fields (Franzway et al, 2009). Indeed, Kusk et al (2007) observe that some of the best women telecommunication engineers are opting to retire early and set up their own businesses because they can create the type of environment that is free of unfavourable organizational policies and working environment. Encouraging Retaining Women in Technology Fields While it is cl ear that some of the issues and challenges contributing to gendered occupational segregation in technology-oriented firms represent the unique situation in a particular country, various studies have concluded that, in most cases, the problems and challenges are more universal in nature and scope (Benson Yukongdi, 2005). This implies that the solutions to the gender inequalities can also assume universal dimensions. Upon undertaking a comprehensive review of extant literature on continued occupational segregation of women in engineering and technology fields, Kusk et al (2007) noted that â€Å"†¦encouragement from family, friends, teachers and advisors is pivotal both in choosing and succeeding in engineering education† (p. 111). Blattel-Mink (2002) cited in Kusk et al (2007) posited that â€Å"†¦true gender equality requires both that those individual women in scientific subjects should have strong career orientation and that structural, institutional and cultural environs should become more welcoming towards women† (p. 111). Benson Yukongdi (2005) posit that increased access to educational opportunities for women, particularly in tertiary-level course, could deal a major blow to gendered occupational segregation in technology-oriented fields. Organizations and countries need to pass legislation that will minimize gendered occupational segregation in technology-oriented field as â€Å"†¦legislative reform constitutes an important component of any strategy to achieve equality in employment† (p. 289). According to these authors, legislation can be instrumental in setting up a community standard, not mentioning that it can serve to demonstrate acceptable behaviour. However, legislation cannot avail a swift remedy to the embedded gender equality segregation in technology-oriented fields, and can lead to manifold informal strategies to outwit the intent of such legislation. Countries also need to pass legislation that would all ow the girl child to have access to technology in elementary schools with a view to downgrade or diminish the gendered stereotype that a career in technology is only meant for men. According to Hafkin Huyer (2007), â€Å"†¦ICTs impact men and women differentially, and in almost all cases, women have many disadvantages that result in their having less access to technology and therefore less use of it† (p. 26). Etzkowitz et al (2010) observe that the access to technology in many countries across the world has allowed women to enhance their economic conditions, progress politically and widen participation in science and technology-oriented occupations for future generations. Benson Yukongdi (2005) are of the opinion that increased marketization of childcare and domestic work could assist women to achieve equal employment opportunities in technology-related sectors by neutralizing the division of domestic labour and the role expectations placed on women. Increasing the ran ge of governmental and organizational support mechanisms through marketization of these services will go a long way to assist women institute a more focused and equitable balance between work roles and family responsibilities. This notwithstanding, the role conflict experienced by women as they attempt to balance their domestic responsibilities and organizational roles will only be assuaged when more substantial social, cultural and attitudinal change transpires within society (Benson Yukongdi, 2005; Deem, 2007; Schreuders et al, 2009). Coping skills and strategies should be taught in institutions of higher learning to make girls understand the barriers and limitations that women in engineering and technology-oriented curricula face and the coping strategies known to be effective in these environments (Morganson et al 2010). These researchers posit that â€Å"†¦coping is a transportable skill that can continue to assist girls and women in overcoming barriers as they move forw ard in their careers† (p. 170). It is important to note that men and women cope in different ways; while men tend to cope by attempting to either alter the stressor (problem-focused coping) or ignore it totally (avoidant coping), women, in contrast, engage in social support coping. Consequently, women must rely on others in the work environment not only for emotional support but as a way to deal with work or family related challenges and seek assistance from others to overcome the stressors (Morganson et al, 2010; Schreuders et al, 2009). Lack of adequate social support coping mechanisms in technology-oriented organizations, therefore, may translate into recruitment of fewer women and higher turnover of women. Conclusion From the analysis it is clear that despite spirited attempts by governments and organizations to achieve equal gender representation in engineering and technology-oriented fields, the problem is far from over. In countries which have achieved tangible outcomes in narrowing down the gap, â€Å"†¦the steady increase in participation of women in science is marred by the tendency of fields to lower in status as women achieve equality of representation, and by continued resistance to women reaching positions of authority† (Etzkowitz et al, 2010 p. 83). Consequently, these negative progressions must be reversed if women are to enjoy the economic and social gains that are attached to the highly prestigious fields of science, engineering and technology. Collecting and analyzing data on why women fail to, make a tangible impact in these fields is a necessary prerequisite to achieving more gendered occupation equality in the industry. As noted in a report by the United Nations Development Programme cited in Hafkin Huyer (2007), â€Å"†¦without data, there is no visibility; without visibility, there is no priority† (p. 26). It is this understanding that provides the impetus for the next section, which aims to collect data t o analyze why there are few women employees in the telecommunications sector in Europe and Middle East. Summary of Conceptual Frame Work From the analysis and statistics, carried out in various regions globally, it is evident that careers which comprise of; technology, engineering, computer science, mathematics, physics, telecommunication and ICT, have little or no women in them. This is because of the gender disparity that is exorbitant in diverse societies globally (Baron 2010, p.203). Whereby, the believes in these societies, define different careers in terms of being feminine or masculine. This has affected women in making career choices, where most of the women find it odd to choose careers that are more masculine in the society than they are feminine. Moreover, even when women take technical occupations, the job market prejudices them because it prefers men to do masculine occupations. Organisational policies that do not encourage women on technical careers have watered down e fforts to eliminate gender segregation in occupations (Schreuders 2009, p103). Meritocracy, which is a strategy developed to eliminate occupational gender segregation, has also failed due to this same prejudice in the job market. The pipeline theory, established to maximize and increase the number of women in masculine occupation, also failed since women who acted in reaction to this theory, did not take masculine and technological occupations (schreuders 2009, p110) On the other hand, unusually many societies globally have painted technical courses masculine. However, despite this, most men have shown a lot of unfading interest in these courses. This has raised a real, crucial question why it is so. Various sociological researchers have answered this critical intriguing question. First, the greatest fear of a man is to become a failure, and for man to overcome this fear he has to find something that is sufficient so as to overcome this fear. Hence or otherwise, most men go for tech nical courses because they are more prestigious in the society and moreover because the job market is remarkably open and diverse for technical course (Franzway 2009, p96). 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Free Essays on Legality Of Same-Sex Marriages

Legality of Same-Sex Marriages The proposed legalization of same-sex marriage is one of the most significant issues in contemporary American family law. Presently, it is one of the most vigorously advocated reforms discussed in law reviews, one of the most explosive political questions facing lawmakers, and one of the most provocative issues emerging before American courts. If same-sex marriage is legalized, it could be one of the most revolutionary policy decisions in the history of American family law. The potential consequences, positive or negative, for children, parents, same-sex couples, families, social structure public health, and the status of women are enormous. Given the importance of the issue, the value of comprehensive debate of the reasons for and against legalizing same-sex marriage should be obvious. Marriage is much more than merely a commitment to love one another. Aside from societal and religious conventions, marriage entails legally imposed financial responsibility and legally authorized financial benefits. Marriage provides automatic legal protections for the spouse, including medical visitation, succession of a deceased spouse's property, as well as pension and other rights. When two adults desire to "contract" in the eyes of the law, as well a perhaps promise in the eyes of the Lord and their friends and family, to be responsible for the obligations of marriage as well as to enjoy its benefits, should the law prohibit their request merely because they are of the same gender? I intend to prove that because of Article IV of the United States Constitution, there is no reason why the federal government nor any state government should restrict marriage to a predefined heterosexual relationship. Marriage has changed throughout the years. In Western law, wives are now equal rather than subordinate partners; interracial marriage is now widely acc... Free Essays on Legality Of Same-Sex Marriages Free Essays on Legality Of Same-Sex Marriages Legality of Same-Sex Marriages The proposed legalization of same-sex marriage is one of the most significant issues in contemporary American family law. Presently, it is one of the most vigorously advocated reforms discussed in law reviews, one of the most explosive political questions facing lawmakers, and one of the most provocative issues emerging before American courts. If same-sex marriage is legalized, it could be one of the most revolutionary policy decisions in the history of American family law. The potential consequences, positive or negative, for children, parents, same-sex couples, families, social structure public health, and the status of women are enormous. Given the importance of the issue, the value of comprehensive debate of the reasons for and against legalizing same-sex marriage should be obvious. Marriage is much more than merely a commitment to love one another. Aside from societal and religious conventions, marriage entails legally imposed financial responsibility and legally authorized financial benefits. Marriage provides automatic legal protections for the spouse, including medical visitation, succession of a deceased spouse's property, as well as pension and other rights. When two adults desire to "contract" in the eyes of the law, as well a perhaps promise in the eyes of the Lord and their friends and family, to be responsible for the obligations of marriage as well as to enjoy its benefits, should the law prohibit their request merely because they are of the same gender? I intend to prove that because of Article IV of the United States Constitution, there is no reason why the federal government nor any state government should restrict marriage to a predefined heterosexual relationship. Marriage has changed throughout the years. In Western law, wives are now equal rather than subordinate partners; interracial marriage is now widely acc...

An Influential Personality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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